Desenterrar el pasado. La masacre de los comunistas de Indonesia en 1965

Contenido principal del artículo

Juan Alberto Bozza

Resumen

Este artículo pretende difundir en el mundo académico local las actitudes negacionistas e interpretaciones distorsivas que las agencias estatales e historiadores norteamericanos impusieron sobre la matanza de más de medio millón de simpatizantes del Partido Comunista de Indonesia (PKI), perpetrada por la dictadura del general Suharto entre octubre de 1965 y marzo de 1966. Describe el proceso de descolonización de Indonesia guiado por Ahmed Sukarno y las reacciones desestabilizadoras de los Estados Unidos que terminaron instigando y apañando la masacre. Analiza el largo silenciamiento impuesto a los hechos por los gobiernos posteriores, las narrativas amañadas de los acontecimientos prohijadas en la era Suharto y el rol de la historiografía crítica que esclareció las circunstancias y artífices de los sucesos. Reflexiona, finalmente, acerca de la posibilidad de considerar a la matanza de 1965 como un método, “el Método Yakarta”, auspiciado por los gobiernos norteamericanos en otras regiones del mundo.

Descargas

Los datos de descargas todavía no están disponibles.

Detalles del artículo

Sección
Artículos

Citas

Alonso Piñeiro, A. (1980). Crónica de la subversión en Argentina. Depalma.

Alterman, E. (2019). El regreso del secretario de Estado para las guerras sucias. Le Monde Diplomatique; marzo. https://mondiplo.com/el-regreso-del-secretario-de-estado-para-las

Anderson, B. & McVey, R. (2009). A Preliminary Analysis of the October 1, 1965 Coup in Indonesia. Equinox Publishing.

Argentine Military Believed U.S. Gave Go-Ahead for Dirty War (s/f). National Security Archive Electronic Briefing, B (73), Part II. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB73/index3.htm

Armony, A. (1999). La Argentina, los Estados Unidos y la cruzada anticomunista en América Central, 1977-1984. UNQui.

Bevins, V. (2017), What the United States Did in Indonesia. The Atlantic, Washington, 20 October. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/10/the-indonesia-documents-and-the-us-agenda/543534/

Bevins, V. (2021). El método Yakarta. Capitán Swing.

Bidien, C. (1945). Independence the Issue. Far Eastern Survey,14 (24). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/as.1945.14.24.01p17062

Blaustein, E y Zubieta, M. (1998). Decíamos ayer. La prensa argentina bajo el Proceso. Colihue.

Canelo, P. (2008). Las ‘dos almas’ del Proceso. Nacionalistas y liberales durante la última dictadura militar argentina (1976-1981). Páginas. Revista digital de la escuela de historia, 1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.35305/rp.v1i1.151

Central Intelligence Agency (1958). Indonesia. 6 February. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP79R00890A000900060024-6.pdf

Central Intelligence Agency (1961). Memorandum for the Record. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP86T00268R000700150019-1.pdf

Central Intelligence Agency (1965 a). William Palmer is United States Secret Service Agent, Yakarta, 14 february. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP70-00058R000300020083-5.pdf

Central Intelligence Agency (1965 b). Cabot Howland, R. The Lesson of the September 30 Affaire; May 1. https://www.cia.gov/static/25fd2d3d54e79689c54a5492739b38d3/Lessons-of-Sept-30.pdf

Central Intelligence Agency (1965c). Coup and Counter Reaction: October 1965-March 1966; Washington, October 1. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB52/doc300.pdf

Central Intelligence Agency (1965d). Communication Newsletter. The Charade in Indonesia; October 2. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP75-00149R000700410014-8.pdf

Central Intelligence Agency (1965e). 149 Intelligence Memorandum. The Upheaval in Indonesia; Washington, October, 6. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP79T00472A000600020009-5.pdf

Central Intelligence Agency (1965f). Intelligence Memorandum/1/. OCI No. 2330/65. The Upheaval in Indonesia; Washington, October 6. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/johnsonlb/xxvi/4445.htm

Central Intelligence Agency. Indonesia-1965 (1968). The Coup That Backfired; Washington D.C.: Photoduplication Service, Library of Congress, December. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/RESEARCH%20STUDY%20--%20INDONES%5B16184520%5D.pdf

Central Intelligence Agency (s/f). A Retrospective on Counterinsurgency Operations (s/f). https://web.archive.org/web/20070711065505/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no2/a-retrospective-on-counterinsurgency-operations.html

Centro Internacional para la Promoción de los Derechos Humanos (2015). Operación Cóndor. 40 años después.UNESCO/CIPDH. Operación Cóndor · Biblioteca Digital

Chandra, S. (2019). The Indonesian killings of 1965–1966: the case of Central Java. Critical Asian Studies, 51 (3). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14672715.2019.1626751

Chomsky, N (1985). La quinta libertad. La intervención de los Estados Unidos en América Central y la lucha por la paz. Editorial Crítica.

Comblin, J (1988). Doctrina de seguridad nacional. Madrid: Editorial Nueva Década.

Comisión Nacional de Verdad y Reconciliación (1996). Informe de la Comisión Nacional de Verdad y Reconciliación, v. 1. Santiago: Reedición de la Corporación Nacional de Reparación y Reconciliación. https://www.bibliotecanacionaldigital.gob.cl/visor/BND:85801

Conboy, K. & Morrison, J. (1999). Feet to the Fire CIA Covert Operations in Indonesia, 1957–1958. Naval Institute Press.

Crewdson, J (1977). Worldwide Propaganda Network Built by the CIA. The New York Times, December 26. https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/26/archives/worldwide-propaganda-network-built-by-the-cia-a-worldwide-network.html

Cribb, R. (Comp) (1991). The Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966. Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University.

Cribb, R. (2004). Case Study 4: The Indonesian Genocide of 1965-1966. En: Totten, S. (ed.). Teaching about Genocide: Approaches, and Resources (pp. 133-141). Information Age Publishing Inc.

Cribb, R. (2008). Book Review. Contemporary Southeast Asia, 30 (2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1355/CS30-2H

Dommen, A. (1966). The attemped coup in Indonesia. The China Quaterly, 25, Jan./March. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305741000027831

Estatuto de Roma de la Corte Penal Internacional (2002). https://www.un.org/spanish/law/icc/statute/spanish/rome_statute(s).pdf

Fealy, G. & McGregor, K. (2010). Nahdlatul Ulama and the Killings of 1965–66: Religion, Politics, and Remembrance. Indonesia, 89, 36-60.

Feierstein, D. (2016). Introducción a los estudios sobre genocidio. Fondo de Cultura Económica.

Figueroa Ibarra, C. (2004). Cultura del Terror y Guerra Fría en Guatemala. En D. Feierstein y G. Levy (eds.). Hasta que la muerte nos separe. Poder y prácticas sociales genocidas en América Latina. Ediciones al Margen.

Final Communiqué of the Asian-African conference of Bandung (1955). 24. https://www.cvce.eu/en/obj/final_communique_of_the_asian_african_conference_of_bandung_24_april_1955-en-676237bd-72f7-471f-949a-88b6ae513585.html

Final Report of the IPT 1965 (2016). Findings and Documents of the International People’s Tribunal on Crimes against Humanity Indonesia 1965. Jakarta; IPT 1965 Foundation, 20 July. https://www.tribunal1965.org//wp-content/uploads/2017/04/IPT_report_of_judges.pdf

Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press.

Geertz, C. (1995). After the Fact: Two Countries, Four Decades, One Anthropologist. Harvard University Press.

Gill, L. (2004). The School of the Americas: Military Training and Political Violence in the Americas. Duke University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822386001

Gungwu, W. (2002). Islam versus Asia's Chinese Diaspora. Project Syndicate, July 29. https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/islam-versus-asia-s-chinese-diaspora

Gus Dur, Sarwo to be named National héroes (2015). The Jakarta Post, April 15. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2015/04/25/gus-dur-sarwo-be-naed-national-heroes.html

Hadiz, V.R. (2006). The Left and Indonesia's 1960s: The politics of remembering and forgetting. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 7 (4), 554-569. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649370600982883 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14649370600982883

Hampton, P. (s/f). Communism and Stalinism in Indonesia. Worker’s Liberty, 61. http://archive.workersliberty.org/wlmags/wl61/indonesi.htm

Henry, A. (2016). Reflections on the Indonesian Massacres in Cold War Historiography and Political Economy. Genocide Studies International, 10 (1), 52-64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3138/gsi.10.1.05

Hering, B. (2001). Soekarno: Architect of a Nation, 1901-1970. KIT Publishers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004486447

How former political prisoners of Indonesia’s 1965 mass killings grapple with bloody past (2022). The Jakarta Post, September 30. https://www.thejakartapost.com/opinion/2022/09/30/how-former-political-prisoners-of-indonesias-1965-mass-killings-grapple-with-bloody-past.html

Hughes, J. (1967). Indonesian Upheaval. David McKay.

Human Rights Watch (2017). Indonesia: US Documents Released on 1965-66 Massacres. https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/10/18/indonesia-us-documents-released-1965-66-massacres

Hunter, H. (2007). Sukarno and the Indonesian Coup: The Untold Story. Praeger Security International. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5040/9798216988205

Ikhwan, H. et altri (2019). The contestation of social memory in the new media: A case study of the 1965 killings in Indonesia. Austrian Journal of South-East Asian Studies, 12(1), 3-16.

Informe del Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica (2009). La masacre de El Salado. Esa guerra no era nuestra. Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica/Taurus/Ediciones Semana. https://centrodememoriahistorica.gov.co/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/3.-La-masacre-de-El-Salado.pdf

Kadane, K. (1990). U.S. Officials’ Lists Aided Indonesian Bloodbath in ´60s. The Washington Post, 21 May. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1990/05/21/us-officials-lists-aided-indonesian-bloodbath-in-60s/ff6d37c3-8eed-486f-908c-3eeafc19aab2

Kendrik, O (2006). The My Lai Massacre in American History and Memory. Manchester University Press.

King, S. (1966). The Great Purge in Indonesia. The New York Times, May 8.

Kornbluh, P. (2003). Los EE.UU. y el derrocamiento de Allende. Una historia desclasificada. Editorial B Chile.

Kuddus, R. (2017). The Ghosts of 1965. New Left Review, 104, Mayo Junio. https://newleftreview.org/issues/ii104/articles/rohana-kuddus-the-ghosts-of-1965

Lashmar, P., Gilby, N. & James O. (2021). Slaughter in Indonesia: Britain’s secret propaganda war. The Guardian (UK), 17 October. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/17/slaughter-in-indonesia-britains-secret-propaganda-war

Leksana, G. (2020). Collaboration in Mass Violence: The Case of the Indonesian Anti-Leftist Mass Killings in 1965–66 in East Java. Journal of Genocide Research, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2020.1778612 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2020.1778612

Martínez, G. (2021). Torturas y asesinatos: la estrategia de EEUU durante el siglo XX para vencer al comunismo. Público.es. https://www.publico.es/culturas/publicacion-metodo-yakarta-torturas-asesinatos-estrategia-eeuu-siglo-xx-vencer-comunismo.html

Mashburn, L. (2010). Linda Mashburn’s Statement. https://web.archive.org/web/20150521140422/http://www.soaw.org/news/organizing-updates/1268

May, B. (1978). The Indonesian Tragedy. Routledge & Kegan Paul.

McGregor, K. (2009). The Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966. SciencePo. https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/indonesian-killings-1965-1966.html

Melvin, J. (2013). Why Not Genocide. Anti-Chinese Violence in Aceh, 1965–1966. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affaires, 32 (3). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/186810341303200304

Melvin, J. (2017). Mechanics of Mass Murder: A Case for Understanding the Indonesian Killings as Genocide. Journal of Genocide Research, 19 (4). https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14623528.2017.1393942 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2017.1393942

Miner, B. (2018). 1965 Communist Purge in Indonesia: U.S. Foreign Relations in Indonesia. Iowa City: University of Iowa. https://iro.uiowa.edu/esploro/outputs/undergraduate/1965-Communist-Purge-in-Indonesia-US/9984109914802771

Molinari, L. (2009). Escuadrones de la muerte: grupos paramilitares, violencia y muerte en Argentina ('73-'75) y El Salvador ('80). Diálogos Revista Electrónica de Historia, 10 (1), febrero-agosto. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15517/dre.v10i1.6129

Notosusanto, N. & Saleh, I. (1970). The Coup Attempt of the ‘September 30 Movement’ in Indonesia. Embassy or Republic of Indonesia.

Oppenheimer, J. (2012). The Act of Killing. Documental.

Ricklefs, M.C. (2008). A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1200. Palgrave Macmillan. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350394582

Robinson, G. (2018). The Killing Season. Princeton University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400888863

Rochijat, P (1985). Am I PKI or non-PKI? Indonesia, 40, 37–56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3350874

Roosa, J. & Nevins, J. (2005). The Mass Killing in Indonesia. CounterPunch, November 5. https://www.counterpunch.org/2005/11/05/the-mass-killings-in-indonesia/

Roosa, J. (2006). Pretext for Mass Murder: The September 30th Movement and Suharto’s Coup d’État in Indonesia. University of Wisconsin Press.

Roosa, J. (2008a). The Truths of Torture: Victimes, Memories and State Histories in Indonesia. Indonesia, 85, April. https://www.academia.edu/10198697/Truths_of_Torture

Roosa, J. (2008b). President Sukarno and the September 30th Movement. Critical Asian Studies. 40 (1), March. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14672710801959182

Roosa, J. (2020). Buried Histories. The Anticommunist Massacres of 1965–1966 in Indonesia. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv10h9dsh

Rousso, H. (2012). La dernière catastrophe. L’histoire, le présent, le contemporain. Gallimard. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14375/NP.9782070759729

Ryter, L. (1998). Pemuda Pancasila, the Last Loyalist Free Men of Suharto’s Order. Indonesia, 66, October. https://ecommons.cornell.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/a63d8abf-58f7-45e5-aa94-58b58265488f/content

Schwarz, A. (1994). Indonesia. A Nation in Waiting. Allen & Unwin.

Siegel, D., Hackel, J. (1990). El Salvador: la nueva visita de la contrainsurgencia. En: Klare, M. y Kornbluh, P. (comp.). Contrainsurgencia, pro insurgencia y antiterrorismo en los 80. El arte de la guerra de baja intensidad. Grijalbo.

Silent Settlement. Time Magazine, December 17, 1965. https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,834780,00.html

Simpson, B. (2008). Economists with Guns: Authoritarian development and U.S.-Indonesian Relations, 1960-1968. Stanford: Stanford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9780804779524

Skoknic, F. (2013). El rol de Agustín Edwards antes y después del 11 de septiembre de 1973. CIPER. Santiago de Chile: Centro de Investigación Periodística, 10 de septiembre. https://www.ciperchile.cl/2013/09/10/el-rol-de-agustin-edwards-antes-y-despues-del-11-de-septiembre-de-1973/

United Nations (1948). Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. New York. https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/documents/atrocity-crimes/Doc.1_Convention%20on%20the%20Prevention%20and%20Punishment%20of%20the%20Crime%20of%20Genocide.pdf

United Nations (1993). Report of the UN Truth Commission on El Salvador. http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/salvador/informes/truth.html

United States Department of State (USDOS) (1963). 308. Memorandum From the Department of State Executive Secretary (Brubeck) to the President’s Special Assistant for National Security Affairs (Buridy); Washington, May 21. En Foreign Relations of the United States (de aquí en más FRUS), 1961–1963, Volume XXIII, Southeast Asia. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d101s://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v23/d308

USDOS (1965a). 101. Memorandum of Conversation; January 22. En Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1964–1968, Volume XXVI, Indonesia; Malaysia-Singapore; Philippines. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d101

USDOS (1965b). 110. Memorandum Prepared for the 303 Committee; February 23. FRUS… v. XXVI, op.cit. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d110

USDOS (1965c). 120. Editorial Note, April 23. En FRUS… op.cit. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d120

USDOS (1965d). 152. Memorandum of Telephone Conversation Between the Under Secretary of State (Ball) and Secretary of State Rusk; Washington, october 12. En FRUS…vol XXVI, op.cit. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d152

USDOS (1965 e). 153. Telegram From the Department of State to the Embassy in Indonesia. Washington, October 13. En FRUS vol. XXVI…op.cit. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d153

USDOS (1965 f). 155 Telegram From the Embassy in Indonesia to the Department of State. Washignton, October 14. En en FRUS… op.cit. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d155

USDOS (1965g). 158. Telegram From the Embassy in Indonesia to the Department of State. Yakarta, October 20. En FRUS…op.cit. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d158

USDOS (1965h). Intelligence Memorandum, Coup and Counter Reaction: October 1965–March 1966 (Documents 142-205). En FRUS, v. XXVI…op.cit. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d149

USDOS (1967). 232. Memorandum From Secretary of Defense McNamara to President Johnson. Washington, March 1. En FRUS v. XXVI…op.cit. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v26/d232

USDOS (1968). 262. National Intelligence Estimate/1, NIE 55. Indonesia. Conclusions -68. Washington, December 31. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB242/1968_NIE-55-68.pdf

USDOS (1975). Memorandum of Conversation. Subject: Secretary's Meeting with Foreign Minister Carvajal; Washington, September 29, 1975. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB437/docs/Doc%209%20-%20Kissinger-Carvajal%20memcon%20Sep%2029%201975.pdf

Vargas Castaño, A. (1993). La suerte del caracol. Expatriados, expropiados, desterrados y desplazados en Colombia. Nueva Sociedad, 123, enero – febrero.

Vengeance with a smile (1966). Time Magazine, 15 July. https://time.com/archive/6629845/indonesia-vengeance-with-a-smile/

Weiner, T. (2007). Legacy of Ashes. New York: Anchor Books.

Wieringa, S. (2011). Sexual Slander and the 1965/66 Mass Killings in Indonesia: Political and Methodological Considerations. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 41(4), 544–565. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2011.610613 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2011.610613